Cossack raids
The Cossack raids largely developed as a reaction to the Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe, which began in 1441 and lasted until 1774. From onwards, the Cossacks conducted regular military offensives into the lands of the Crimean Khanate, the Nogai Horde, and the Ottoman Empire, where they would free enslaved Christians and return home with a significant amount of plunder and Muslim slaves. Unlike the Tatars, Cossack raiders were capable of capturing and devastating highly fortified cities. Though difficult to calculate, the level of devastation caused by the Cossack raids is roughly estimated to have been on par with that of the Crimean–Nogai slave raids. According to History of Ruthenians, Cossack raids during Sirko's era were a hundred times more devastating than Crimean–Nogai raids.
Background
The first raid of the Zaporozhian Cossacks was recorded on 1 August 1492, which was a raid on the Tatar settlement Tiahynka. During this period the Cossacks were less organized, with their raiding activities resembling that of "guerrilla warfare" or "steppe sport", with back-and-forth raiding between Cossack and Tatar raiders. Being a Cossack during this period was "more an occupation than a social status", according to Mykhailo Hrushevsky. This began to change in the 1580s, when Cossacks started to acquire higher social status in their respective states and transformed into regular military formations. Between the 1580s and the middle of the 17th century, Cossack raids were a major problem for the Crimean Khanate and Ottoman Empire.Cossack raiders were often successful due to their adoption of gunpowder weaponry, allowing them to match the Crimean-Nogai raiders and Ottomans. Cossacks also made efficient use of cannon. Many attacks were north of the Black sea, but the Cossacks also attacked targets deep inside Anatolia, including the Ottoman capital city Istanbul. The sea raids of Zaporozhians only stopped in 1648, with the outbreak of Khmelnytsky Uprising and formation of the Cossack Hetmanate, but Don Cossacks continued sea raiding until the 1660s/1670s. By the 18th century, Cossack raids decreased in intensity due to increasing Russian control over Cossack hosts and their incorporation into the Imperial Russian Army. The raids fully ceased only in 1783 with the end of Crimean-Nogai raids in Eastern Europe following the Russian annexation of Crimea.
Conflict and raids
The Cossack conflict with Tatars and Turks was often carried out in parallel with the Russian state. At the same time, these two acted independently of each other in the 16th century. Cossacks preferred an offensive doctrine, while in most cases the Russian state limited itself to passive defensive doctrine.Tatar raids
In early 16th century, Russian state reinforced Oka and Ugra rivers with fortifications and troops, but these were the only defensive measures at the time. The first Crimean raid on Russia took place in 1500–1503. In 1503, Tatars raided Chernigov, which Russian envoys complained about to the Khan. In 1527, Tatars reached as far as Oka and plundered Ryazan. During 1580–1590, Russian state built defensive fortresses along the southern line of Belgorod, Voronezh, Lebedyan and other cities. However, during 1607–1618, Russia was weakened by turmoil. Tatars took the opportunity to plunder Bolkhov, Dankov, Lebedyan, etc. Nearly all of these affected cities were covered by the "defensive line", but this didn't prevent Tatars from raiding them.In 1632, 20,000 Tatars devastated Yelets, Karachyev, Livny, along with other settlements. In 1633, another 20,000-strong Tatar army devastated Aleksin, Kaluga, Kashira, and other towns along the Oka. Even Moscow, which was on another side of the Oka, was affected. In 1635, the Russian state responded with construction of the "Belgorod defense line", which was 800 km from the Vorskla tributary of the Dnieper to the Chelnova River. The construction only began in 1646, taking over 10 years to complete. Tsar Alexis expanded the defensive line to the Crimean border of Russia. Despite these measures, Tatar raiders were hardly deterred, abducting 150,000–200,000 people out of Russia in the first half of the 17th century. In addition, the Russian state was forced to pay tribute to the Crimean Khanate every year, averaging 26,000 rubles annually. Russia paid 1 million rubles in the first half of the 17th century, which by modern calculations, could have been used to build four new cities.
Cossack raids
Cossacks launched raids both on the land and sea. Cossack cavalry often picked off wondering Tatars along the north Black Sea, while plundering Ottoman fortresses on the lower Dnieper, Danube, and Crimea. In 1516, Cossacks besieged the Ottoman fortress of Akkerman. In 1524, Cossacks first attacked Crimea. In 1545, Cossacks attacked Ochakov and looted its surroundings, capturing an Ottoman delegation on the way.From the third quarter of the 16th century, Cossack influence rose in the Black Sea. The Cossacks of Ataman Foka Pokatilo devastated Akkerman. In 1575, Ataman Bogdan launched a campaign into Crimea in response to Tatar attacks on Ukrainian lands. Bogdan later launched raids on Kozlov, Trebizond, and Sinop. In 1587, Cossacks again devastated Kozlov and Akkerman. Ottomans responded to Cossack raids by establishing Azov and Ochakov fortresses as a defense from Cossack raids. Kizil-Kermen, Tavan, and Aslan fortresses were also constructed on the upper Dnieper and Don region. However, these small fortresses were inefficient in stopping the raiders, with Cossacks learning how to bypass them. The areas of Ochakov, Tighina, Akkerman, and Islam-Kermen were raided by the Zaporozhian Cossacks 4-5 times annually. According to, Zaporozhians conducted over 40 raids, seizing 100,000 cattle, 17,000 horses and 360,000 in złotys during the 1570–1580s.
Russian policy and Cossacks
The Russian state first began assisting Cossacks under Ivan IV, providing them with military supplies. Despite this, Russian policy of trying to appease the Crimean Khanate did not end. The policy was ineffective and Tatar raids continued, as the Crimean Khans were unwilling to negotiate unlike their Polish and Swedish counterparts. At one point, the Russian state ordered Cossacks to stop raiding Tatars, threatening to cut off their financial and military support. However, Cossacks ignored these orders most of the time. In response, the Russian state moved forward with cutting off their support, even imposing an economic embargo of the Sich and Don region.At some points, the Russian state even entered into armed confrontations with Cossacks in order to appease the Crimean Khanate and Ottoman Empire. In early 1630, the Russian state ordered Don Cossacks to stop raiding Tatars and Turks. Don Cossacks were disobedient to these orders and were willing to revolt. However, Zaporozhian Cossacks had minimal connections with the Russian state during this time, acting more recklessly.
Assessment
The ineffectiveness of Russian doctrine against Tatar raids was attributed to wrong strategy, which sought to appease the raiders and only limited itself to defensive actions, combined with defenses being incapable of stopping the raiders nor inflicting heavy losses on them. Tatar raiders could only be restrained through offensive actions, which were only carried out by the Cossacks on frequent basis. Though Cossacks didn't limit their actions to passive defense, they had become both the inhabitants and defenders of border regions. Cossacks organized defenses which were efficient in repelling Tatar attacks and responded to losses inflicted by Tatars with retaliatory attacks. In this regard, Cossack doctrine was more effective in dealing with Tatar raids.Sea raids
in the Black Sea was rare until Cossacks began to conduct sea raids. Until the mid-16th century, Ottoman superiority in the sea was undisputed. However, this changed with frequent sea raids by the Cossacks after the 1550s. Ottoman officials viewed the beginning of Cossack sea raiding with massive concern about the outbreak of banditry in the Black Sea. Cossacks were significantly more organized than typical bandits and were capable of adapting to harsh frontier conditions and using the environment to their benefit, which allowed them to harass an Empire as large as the Ottomans. In addition, Cossack society attracted diverse sets of individuals, from escaped serfs to mercenaries and dissenters of neighboring Empires, which found the ungoverned Wild Fields appealing.For the Cossacks, sea raiding was economically effective as they had developed a sort of "water culture" due to living near rivers. Their boats, named chaikas, closely resembled upgraded Viking ships. Cossacks could call up to 300 chaikas for a campaign, which had greater mobility than Ottoman ships. Cossacks on their chaikas were active in the Black Sea.
French military engineer Vasseur de Beauplan provided his account of Cossack sailing:
Impact of sea raids
The need to counter Cossack sea raids, though not entirely successful, led the Ottomans to pull a significant amount of their naval forces out of the Mediterranean Sea, weakening their influence. Cossack sea raids also had an economic impact, discouraging trade on Ottoman shore due to risk of Cossack attacks. As explorer Evliya Celebi noted, the rural population of Sinop was unwilling to engage in agriculture, as they believed their harvest would be destroyed during Cossack attacks.In the long-term, Cossack raids had demonstrated that the Ottoman Empire, which had conquered southeast Europe centuries prior, was not invincible and that their era of influence over European affairs was coming to an end. Both European and Ottoman chronicler descriptions of the devastation caused by Cossack sea raids resembled those of Gothic sea attacks on the Byzantine Empire in the 5th century.