Ayyār
Ayyār refers to a person associated with a class of warriors in Iraq and Persia from the 9th to the 12th centuries. The word literally means vagabond. The 'Ayyarun were associated with futuwwa, or medieval Islamic organizations located in cities. They were notable for being youth groups, typically from lower classes, that engaged in violent acts, thievery, assassinations, and violent rebellions against established systems in many Islamic cities. Often clashing with the ruling dynasties. They typically gain power within a city once a centralized body is weakened.
Historical origins
Most of the writing about them centers on their activities in Baghdad from the 10th to the 12th centuries. Baghdad was ruled by the Buyids back then. They were known for many criminal activities, such as extorting taxes on roads and markets, burning wealthy quarters and markets, and looting the homes of the rich by night. For several years, al-Burjumi and Ibn al-Mawsili, leaders of the 'Ayyarun, ruled the city due to governmental instability.
'Ayyarun in Baghdad
Emergence in Abbasid Baghdad
Activities in the Fourth Fitna
The first mention of the 'Ayyarun in Arabic sources can be found in 812 during the Fourth Fitna, which was the strife between al-Amin and al-Ma'mun, in which they played a major role in the strife. When al-Amin was besieged in Baghdad and his soldiers were unable to defend themselves, they called the 'Ayyarun for help. The 'Ayyarun elected their own chiefs, and would cast themselves into battle without weapons. But around 965, weapons, such as clubs and bows, began to be distributed to any 'Ayyar hired as a hitman for assassination. They began to raid the gates of Baghdad, which resulted in the deaths of tens of people. Around this time, the artillery of these groups also consisted of shields made of tar-covered mats and nosebags filled with rocks.In 814, a year after al-Ma'mun was appointed Caliph of the Abbasid Caliphate, the 'Ayyarun supported a revolt led by a man named Hassan al-Hersh against the Abbasid governor of Baghdad, al-Hasan ibn Sahl. They would take over a portion of Baghdad and loot people of their money. Al-Ma'mun responded by ordering a military campaign the expel them from the city. However, ibn Sahl's governance became notorious for its bad reforms, which alienated many Abbasid civilians from him. As a result, the 'Ayyarun took advantage of people's dissatisfaction by enlisting them to rebel against the centralized body. Although the 'Ayyarun hated music, they proclaimed the Abbasid prince and singer Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi caliph in 817, and called for the overthrow of al-Ma'mun. Ibrahim was not fit for a political position due to his career as an artist. He later resigned and briefly hid in the home of one of the 'Ayyarun.
In 1170, the Abbasid Caliph al-Mustadi hired a group of 'Ayyarun, or shaqawat, to assassinate the general of the army Qutb al-Din, who had threatened the Caliph's power, in his house.
Conflict with the Buyid Dynasty
In 1017, the Buyids' control of Baghdad began to weaken. This allowed them to confiscate a lot of money belonging to the Buyids and their supporters. Their activities increased clearly in 1025, when they were dissatisfied with the Buyid authority. The 'Ayyarun went far in blatant defiance and subjugation to the point that they would walk at night with torches and candles. They also began to harass the Buyid emir Musharrif al-Dawla and threaten to rob him treasury. His successor, Jalal al-Dawla, would take the 'Ayyarun threat seriously, especially after several attacks and massacres the 'Ayyarun launched under the leadership of Ya'ma al-Musami. There was also an event on the Tuesday night of 29 December 1030 in which a group of 'Ayyarun broke into an Abbasid palace and robbed garments out of it.Decline in power
These gangs notably took advantage of current circumstances to achieve their goals and continue their activities throughout the weaker times of the Abbasid Caliphate. However, during the rule of the Caliph al-Nasir, the leadership of the 'Ayyarun began to decline. Al-Nasir was firm in tax collecting and centralized Baghdad. Due to this, the 'Ayyarun couldn't make enough money. As such, their influence and power began to fade.Role in Ottoman Baghdad
Similar groups began to emerge in Baghdad in the Ottoman Empire due to deterioration of economic, social, and health conditions in the city under Ottoman rule. Because of this neglect, the families of each Baghdadi neighborhood began establishing a majlis per every area, and those families decided to hire 'Ayyarun as guards to protect their area and ensure that law and order are established. This civilian system was continued until the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. However, these groups became known as "Shaqawat al-Mahalat" in Baghdad. Iraqi historian Abbas al-Baghdadi would eventually coin the term "Shaqawat Baghdad" to refer to this group of 'Ayyarun.Although the shaqawat rebelled against the system, participated in outlaw activities, and most of its members were from the youth, just like the 'Ayyarun. The shaqawat were notable for having more noble principles and values compared to the 'Ayyār. They were also instrumental in helping the lower classes in Baghdadi society. The shaqawat have also since become a part of Baghdadi folklore in the present day.
'Ayyarun in Karbala
Emergence in the early 19th century
In the early 19th century, the tradespeople and religious elite of Karbala that controlled the city wanted to stir Ottoman control away from Karbala's affairs. Karbala had been an important city in Ottoman Iraq, and the Mamluk Dynasty had largely controlled many sources of its wealth. Including lavish gifts brought to it from Persia and India, the ziyarat lines, and the tax money. While the Sayyid elite of the city owned only a third of the working-class land. The Mamluk-Ottoman also failed to protect Karbala from the Wahhabi sacking of 1801, which gave Qajar Iran an excuse to attempt to annex the Shi'i shrines.Beginning in the 1820s, urban gangs made up of young people began running protection rackets, co-opting merchant families, and forming links with several different Arab tribes. They were motivated by financial reasons, religious fanaticism, or to seek Karbala'i autonomy from the Ottomans, who were seen as "alien Sunni troops." These youth gangs, whose members came from families of tradespeople and laborers, were calledAs a result of the weakening Mamluk Dynasty and these gangs, the Mamluk-appointed governors were expelled from the city. Shi'i Arab notables attempted to monopolize the city's resources but had no tradition of legitimate rule. As a result, they hired brigand fugitives from the city. One of them, the Sayyid Ibrahim al-Za'farani, emerged as the main leader of the many Arab 'Ayyar factions, while the Persian minority factions were headed by a Persian-Arab man named Mirza Salih. Both became known as "Men of the people" among the 'Ayyar. In 1842, Karbala had 14 local 'Ayyār gangs each with 60 to 400 members, with a total of 2,000-2,500 members.
Beginning from 1826, Sultan Mahmud II began a movement to centralize the empire. The last Mamluk viceroy of Baghdad, Dawud Pasha, was replaced by Ali Rıza Pasha in 1831 with the task of centralizing Ottoman Iraq. Due to the power the 'Ayyarun held in Karbala, the Pasha made a deal with the gangs and their leaders as a compromise. Al-Za'farani would pay a tribute of 70,000 qirans to Baghdad. However, there were many hopes at the time that the Ottomans would overthrow gang-rule in Karbala due to the violent incidents that came with their rule.