Arch of Septimius Severus
The Arch of Septimius Severus at the northwestern end of the Roman Forum is a white marble triumphal arch dedicated in 203 AD to commemorate the Parthian victories of Emperor Septimius Severus and his two sons, Caracalla and Geta, in the two campaigns against the Parthians of 194-195 and 197–199. After the death of Septimius Severus, his sons Caracalla and Geta were initially joint Emperors. Caracalla had Geta assassinated in Rome; in the practice now known as damnatio memoriae, Geta's memorials were destroyed and all images or mentions of him were removed from street buildings and monuments. Accordingly, Geta's image and inscriptions referring to him were removed from the arch.
The Severan dynasty were avid builders of triumphal or honorary arches, especially in the Roman Empire; the Arch of Septimius Severus in the emperor's hometown of Leptis Magna, Libya was built in the same year. The Monumental Arch of Palmyra is also sometimes called the "Arch of Septimius Severus".
Description
The arch was raised on a travertine base originally approached by steps from the Forum's ancient level. The central archway, spanned by a richly coffered semicircular vault, has lateral openings to each side archway, a feature copied in many Early Modern triumphal arches. The Arch is about in height and wide. The arch bears two sets of reliefs. The first set includes four large panels on each face of the attic and the second set consists of eight panels that are set into the inner face of the four archways.File:Canaletto - The Arch of Septimius Severus - RCIN 400700 - Royal Collection.jpg|thumb|upright|The Arch of Septimius Severus painted by Canaletto in 1742, before the excavation of the Roman Forum
The three archways rest on piers, which are composite columns on pedestals. Winged Victories are carved in relief in the spandrels. A staircase in the south pier leads to the top of the monument. Previously, the top of the arch had statues of the emperor and his two sons in a four-horse chariot, accompanied by soldiers.
The master architect is unknown, but he worked with a skill level that allowed him to create the arch in a quick and traditional manner. Although traditional with the columns, piers, and cornices, the style in which the architect shows the effects of texture, and the prominent and versatile planes, show a hint of deviation from the classical style. According the scholar Richard Brilliant, the variety of styles shown on the arch signify that many different workshops and sculptors were involved. This was a way to have the commission completed quickly. Brilliant made this conclusion by identifying how the same models for the motifs have small differences throughout the reliefs. Even individual sections such as the panels, middle reliefs, and column pedestals have distinctive techniques or styles that must have come from separate artists. The differences in styles are not so drastic as to stick out, but they are enough that an expert can identify a shift. The arch also has some sections that are more detailed than the others indicating more time was spent on them, which is normal when different sculptors in a workshop work on the same object. Those who worked on the arch were taught in the Antonine style, which was known for its rich ornamentation and use of Proconnesian marble.
To help add depth to the arch, the shadows of the façade are deepened with columns and 3-D-like cornices. The façade is created in tetrastyle, where four columns are used to create a porch. The tetrastyle façade in the Severus Septimius arch is only an illusion, as it does not have a deep porch-like space behind the columns.
Materials
The materials of the arch are mostly made of travertine and marble mixed in with concrete and brick. Proconnesian marble was used for the columns, Pentelic marble for the masonry, and Luna marble for the greater relief columns. The marble blocks were precisely cut in a format that made the shapes of each block rectangular. Each block, whether horizontal or vertical is fitted very closely together and it is unclear how this was possible without taking the arch apart. It is believed that the blocks of marble were cut while they were still on the ground. To avoid damage to ornamentation, the details were first roughly made while on the ground, and were later perfected and detailed once the blocks were in the proper placement. Most of the arch must have been preplanned in design and careful alignment before it was put into place. The fine details in construction show that this monument was made by some of the best professionals of the time.Decoration
Since the arch was created with the purpose of acting as a show of victory and Imperialistic propaganda, the ornamentation was essential and specific. The arch shows the vertical elevation that is common in the Roman canon of decoration and how the designer added horizontal accents.The decorations of the attic were meant to show the achievements of the Imperial family. Evidence from Severan coins show that although no longer standing, the top of the attic used to have a chariot pulled by six horses and two riders made of gilded bronze. These sculptures most likely acted as trophy-bearers. The attic was designed to decoratively frame the inscription on the arch. This is evident through the gilding and sizing of the letters. Because the letters were gilded, the reflection on them during a sunny day would have made the sentences hard to read, but they would have been legible in the afternoon. The dowel-holes on the base of the attic show that there used to be some sort of metal ornament attached, most likely in the form of floral or trophic symbols. The attic has cornices with Lesbian cymation with a rosette around the inscription and there is double molding with an Acanthus bands as well. The arch uses the style that was common in Imperial architecture that used the Corinthian columns.
Iconography
Throughout the arch, there are many reliefs. Near the spandrels of the arch entryway are flying Victorias that mark the victory of the emperor. There are four statues underneath the Victorias that represent the four seasons. Prisoners of war are shown on the pedestals nearest to the ground floor. Visitors walking through the arch would see these images, and be reminded of the imperial victories of Septimius Severus. Some of these prisoners have gloomy faces, and others have their hands behind their back while Roman soldier stands behind them. The loot and booty taken by Septimius Severus and his men are shown under the four main reliefs. The loot is being transported on a cart being pulled by a large animal. The arch has four main relief panels that show scenes of the Roman wars against the Parthian Empire.Relief one: The arch represents the siege of Nisibis from 195 AD in the first Parthian war. The knight who stands guarding the city gate is the knight whom Septimius Severus had to protect the city of Nisibis after the war. Nisibis is shown in the first panel because it is considered the causa belli to the first war against the Parthians. The small building towards the bottom of the panel represents the Roman camp that was put up during the siege of Nisibis by the Osroeni and Adiabeni who were defeated by Severus. The multitude of figures represent the battle in which Severus defeated Osroeni and Adiabeni in the first Parthian war.
Relief two: This scene has many interpretations. One interpretation of this panel is that it is a scene of a revolt of Edessa, an ally of Rome. although the bottom section looks like a battle, it is said to be instead a surrender by king Abgrus to the emperor who stands in front of the other Edessian figures, receiving their submission. The center section shows the king surrendering to the emperor. Another theory of this panel states that this scene shows an agreement made between emperor Severus and the city of Hatra. The way the emperor holds his spear downwards implies there is a lack of aggression on his behalf. The other figure, is not kneeling which contradicts the submissive theory.
Relief three: This panel is on the capitol side and is a relief of the second Parthian campaign. Shown on the left of the relief are the Romans attacking the city of Seleucia. The figures fleeing on the left and right side are the Parthian soldiers, and the top of the relief shows the citizens who are surrendering to the Romans.
Relief four: The relief on the right facing the capitol shows the Romans taking over the city of Ctesiphon, the final battle of the Parthian war. One of the indicators that this is a siege and sacking of the city, is the large siege engine shown in the bottom left section of the panel. To the right, the city is shown surrendering to the Romans. The upper right quadrant shows emperor Septimius Severus announcing Caracalla, his eldest son, as co-ruler and Geta his youngest son, as the crowned prince.
History
After the second century AD, it was common for Roman emperors to use triumphal arches to announce their achievements in a way and a place that would allow for all Romans to see. The arch is significant because it was a purposeful tool of imperialistic propaganda, created during the forming of the Roman state. It was commissioned to celebrate the Parthian Victory, but also to boast about the Severan dynasty. His victory against the Parthians started in 197 CE, when he traveled to Nisibis in Mesopotamia to take back the city that was besieged by the Parthian empire. Once he took back the Roman occupied city of Nisbis from the Parthians, he took his army to take over other Parthian cities such as Seleucia in Babylon and the capital city Ctesiphon. The wars created by Septimius Severus led to the Romans acquiring Northern Mesopotamia.Coins with images of the arch began to be created by Septimius and Caracalla in order to show the Romans the completion of this work. It is said that the coin and the actual arch are very similar in depiction. Emperor Septimius Severus decided to name his sons Geta and Caracalla heirs to his throne where they were meant to rule alongside each other. After the Death of Septimius Severus, Geta was murdered by his brother Caracalla.