Appayya Dikshita
Appayya Dikshita, 1520-1593 CE, was a member of the Advaita school and a devotee of Shiva, and followers of the Shiva Advaita school claim him as belonging to their school. He was a prolific author, expounding Advaita-philosophy, but also treating other topics. Major works are the Śivārkamaṇi-dīpikā and the Kalpataruparimala.
Biography
Sources for the life of Appaya Dikshita are scarce, and mainly based on oral accounts. According to these traditions, Appayya Dikshita was impressed by the play Sankalpa Suryodaya and it's display of hostility toward Advaita and Śaivism, inspiring him to take a vow to actively promote both traditions. Another traditional account describes Dikshita entering a deep meditative state in his private worship room. Despite his warning that the experience would be too intense, his wife is said to have observed him through a small hole in the door. During the samādhi, he reportedly emitted a radiance like flames, and serpents appeared encircling his body. The sight caused his wife to faint and, according to the story, led to the loss of her eyesight. Such narratives are preserved in devotional literature to highlight the extraordinary spiritual stature attributed to Appayya Dikshita. Devotional accounts describe a series of confrontations between Appayya Dikshita and Thathacharya, a court scholar at Vellore. According to these narratives, Appayya cured royal family members of illness attributed to witchcraft, survived an alleged poisoning attempt, and displayed miraculous powers such as emitting fire from his eyes to repel attackers. In the end, Thathacharya is said to have repented and become a devotee of Appayya.Works and scholarship
According to the biography of Sri Vijayendra Bhikshu, a leading Madhva scholar, he composed 104 works in competition with Appayya Dikshita. According to Ramesan this suggests that Appayya himself produced a comparable number of works. This oeuvre includes both major treatises and concise compositions, spanning philosophy, theology, and devotion.''Chaturmata Sara''
In his work Chaturmata Sara, Appayya Dikshita sought to organize and compare the doctrines of the four major schools interpreting the Brahma Sutras:- Nayamamnjari – Advaita
- Nayamamimamsa – Shaivism
- Nayamayukha Malika – Vishishtadvaita
- Nayamuktavali – Dvaita
Advaita philosophy
Sri Appayya Dikshita’s contributions to Advaita Vedanta are both extensive and influential, with several of his writings regarded as essential in the traditional curriculum of Vedantic study. Among these, the Siddhanta Lesa Sangraha, Nyaya Rakshamani, and his celebrated commentary on the Kalpataru are especially significant.''Kalpataruparimala''
His most celebrated work in this domain is Parimala, a commentary on Amalananda’s Kalpataru.The acceptance of Parimala by Bengal scholars highlights Appayya’s pan-Indian reputation.
Appayya composed Parimala at the request of Sri Nrisimhasrami, a respected contemporary Advaita scholar. This work earned him the title Advaita Sthapanacharya. Other Vedantic writings by him include Nyaya Rakshamani and Siddhantalesa Samgraha, the latter preserving rare Advaitic teachings imparted by his father and remaining an important source for students of Vedanta.
The Kalpataruparimala is a detailed and accessible commentary on Kalpataru—itself a profound sub-commentary on the Bhāmatī of Vācaspati Miśra, which in turn expounds the Brahmasūtras of Ādi Śaṅkarācārya. The Kalpataru is renowned for its depth and complexity, often considered too abstruse for most students of Vedānta. Sri Appayya Dikshita’s Parimala serves as a lucid exposition, making this intricate work more approachable and widely studied.
Before composing Parimala, Dikshita is said to have written a commentary on the Śivārkamaṇidīpikā, a Brahmasūtra commentary from the Śaiva Viśiṣṭādvaita standpoint, demonstrating his broad engagement with multiple philosophical traditions. According to tradition, his contemporary, the Advaitic scholar Nṛsiṃhasvāmi, urged him to compose a Brahmasūtra commentary from a purely Advaita perspective, reminding him of his family’s great Advaitic heritage. Accepting this as an obligation, Dikshita began Parimala in a spirit of humble dedication, after invoking the blessings of Lord Parameśvara.
In his own preface, Dikshita explicitly frames the work as an offering rather than an achievement:
He further acknowledges his modesty in relation to the monumental text he was clarifying:
Contemporary poets praised Parimala for its clarity and generosity. Sri Mullandram Balakavi remarked:
“O Appayya Dikshita! How can I describe your generosity? Even the Kalpataru, famous for granting all desires, awaits your pleasure to reveal its true meaning.”
Likewise, Raju Śāstrigaḷ in Dīkṣita Vaṃśābharaṇa recorded a verse comparing Dikshita’s achievement to Lord Krishna’s mythical act of bringing the celestial Kalpataru to earth:
“Lord Krishna brought the Kalpataru from the heavens to satisfy Satyabhāmā. Sri Appayya Dikshita, by writing a commentary upon it, has firmly established it in the world. Yet there is one difference: what Krishna brought was full of doubts, while what Dikshita has given is crystal clear, elucidating the truths of the śāstras beyond question.”
''Siddhanta Lesa Sangraha''
The Siddhanta Lesa Sangraha is a comprehensive and original treatise in which Sri Appayya Dikshita systematically collects and presents the diverse dialectical positions within the Advaita tradition. Traditionally studied as a preparatory text before engaging with the Brahmasutra commentaries, it remains one of the most widely respected works in Advaita scholarship.In this text, Dikshita meticulously records the varying interpretations of earlier Advaitins on key philosophical debates, such as:
- ekajiva-vada
- nanajiva-vada
- bimba–pratibimba-vada
- avichchinna-vada
- sakshitva-vada
''Nyaya Rakshamani''
The Nyaya Rakshamani is an independent and detailed commentary on the first pada of the Brahmasutras, which deals with the fundamental topics of the self and the universe. This work is especially valued for its precision and depth, and it continues to be recognized as one of the most authoritative texts attributed to Sri Appayya Dikshita in the Advaitic tradition.In Nyaya Rakshamani, Dikshita presents original and rigorous arguments by carefully examining both the pūrvapakṣa and the siddhānta within each adhikaraṇa. His treatment of the debates demonstrates a masterful command of dialectics, as well as a capacity to synthesize opposing viewpoints while firmly grounding them in Advaita Vedanta. The work is often cited by later commentators as an exemplar of intellectual rigor in Vedantic exegesis.
Shaivite Works
Sri Appayya Dikshita was an extraordinarily prolific scholar, with his vast literary output often inferred from contemporary accounts. For instance, the biography of Sri Vijayendra Bhikshu, a prominent Madhvacharya, records that he composed 104 works in rivalry with Appayya Dikshita—suggesting that Appayya himself authored a comparable number.His writings span a wide range, from major philosophical treatises such as Parimala and Śivārkamaṇidīpikā, which remain authoritative references in their respective traditions, to shorter devotional hymns like Pañcaratna Stuti and Mārga Bandhu Stuti. Some works are original compositions, while others are commentaries, including expositions on his own texts.
Among his most notable contributions are his Śaivite works, composed to uphold and propagate the Śivādvaita doctrine. These include Śikhariṇīmālā and Śivatattvaviveka, both of which eloquently expound the philosophical and theological supremacy of Lord Śiva. Produced during the Vijayanagara period—a time marked by vigorous polemical exchanges between Vaiṣṇavas and Śaivas—these works served to defend and consolidate the Śaiva philosophical tradition while also enriching its devotional literature.
Vaiṣṇavite Works
Although best known for his contributions to Advaita Vedānta and Śaiva philosophy, Sri Appayya Dikshita also composed works that reflect his engagement with Vaiṣṇavite literature and devotional traditions. His writings in this sphere underscore his broad outlook, which did not recognize any essential doctrinal conflict between the worship of Lord Śiva and Lord Viṣṇu.- Yādavābhyudaya Vyākhyāna – A detailed commentary on the mahākāvya ''Yādavābhyudaya'' of Sri Vedānta Deśika, one of the most eminent Vaiṣṇavite ācāryas. This work illustrates Dikshita’s willingness to study, appreciate, and critically engage with texts outside his own immediate philosophical school.
- Varadarājastava – A devotional hymn dedicated to Lord Varadarāja, the presiding deity of Kanchipuram, Appayya Dikshita’s birthplace. Despite his firm Advaitic orientation, Dikshita’s personal devotion to Lord Varadarāja is evident in this work. His ancestors were also traditional devotees of this deity, and the composition, along with its auto-commentary, reflects this enduring familial and regional piety.