Women in Sudan
Sudan is a developing nation that faces many challenges in regard to gender inequality. Freedom House gave Sudan the lowest possible ranking among repressive regimes during 2012. South Sudan received a slightly higher rating but it was also rated as "not free". In the 2013 report of 2012 data, Sudan ranks 171st out of 186 countries on the Human Development Index. Sudan also is one of very few countries that are not a signatory on the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women.
Despite this, there have been positive changes in regard to gender equality in Sudan. As of 2012, women embodied 24.1% of the National Assembly of Sudan. Sudanese women account for a larger percentage of the national parliament than in many Western nations. Still, gender inequalities in Sudan, particularly as they pertain to female genital mutilation and the disparity of women to men in the labor market, have been met with concern in the international community. In the aftermath of the Sudanese revolution of 2018/19, where women played an important role in the opposition to the former government, a number of laws have been changed and women have been appointed for leading positions in the transitional government.
Historical background
Due to its geographic situation, the population of Sudan is both "Arab" and "African", with much complexity that involves terms of ethnicity and identity politics. A variety of governments have ruled within the last two centuries: colonial regimes such as Ottoman and Anglo-Egyptian, Islamic states, parliamentary democracies, and military regimes until 2019.19th century
Although there is only scant information on gender relationships before and during the Turkiyya and the Mahdiyya, some sources claim that women served as couriers in the opposition against the Ottoman government. Moreover, they took care of wounded people, informed about enemy movements as spies for the Sudanese opposition, and incited men to act with bravery.During the Mahdiyya period, women's public activities and economic roles were largely restricted to rural areas, where women were granted more social roles than those in the towns. In the urban areas, women were often confined to living areas reserved for women and children, and had hardly any possibilities to get an education. Following Mahdist religious interpretations, women had to cover their heads and avoid personal contact with men outside the family. Furthermore, men and women were ordered to avoid Western types of clothing.
21st century
Darfur region
Conflict and gender-based violence occurred in Darfur even after the 2006 Darfur Peace Agreement. Before the peace agreement, rebel factions and bandits in Darfur killed and abducted civilians, humanitarian workers, and United Nations – African Union Mission in Darfur personnel.A panel of experts at the United Nations found, in 2005, that sexual and gender-based violence occurred throughout Darfur. At this time, there were non-governmental organizations that worked to stop this gender violence. However, the government expelled thirteen NGOs that resulted in the closure of most gender-based violence programs. Before the independence of South Sudan in 2011, the Interim National Constitution in the Darfur area explicitly prohibited discrimination based on gender. However, according to the 2009 Human Rights Report published by the U.S. State Department, the Sudanese government did not effectively enforce this provision.
According to a report by UN Women, since the start of the 2023 conflict in Sudan, large numbers of women, children and other vulnerable groups have been affected by forced displacement, sexual and other forms of violence. At the same time, Sudanese women have assumed leading roles in humanitarian action and the promotion of an end to the conflict.
Independence of South Sudan
Before the separation of South Sudan, Sudan was Africa's largest country by land area and a producer of crude oil. On January 9, 2011, the population of the southern states of Sudan voted to become formally independent of the North. 98% of the approximate eight-million voters chose to become independent.This separation was the result of Sudan's failure to democratize and the flawed implementation of the 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement. This agreement ended the longest civil conflict on the continent. Ever since the decolonization of Sudan in the 1950s, the "predominantly black and Christian or animist South had sought either autonomy or independence from the Arabic-speaking, Muslim-dominated North". The quest for oil-wealth was also a factor in the conflict within Sudan. Democracy was never given a chance to succeed, because no multiparty election had produced a stable government and three elected governments had been overthrown by military coups.
Gender studies and micro-credit schemes
inequality in Sudan have gone through two basic stages, according to Seteny Shami. The early stage, characterized by the neglect of women as a research priority, can be related to development conceptions in the post-independence period, from 1956 until the 1970s. Women-related issues were seldom given research attention and, when studied, were dealt with in a cursory and superficial manner that neglected some of their fundamental dimensions.The second stage began with the declaration of the United Nations Decade for Women in 1975. This was characterized by a reversal of the early stage's trends and a new interest in research on women. This research, however, aimed at using the funds pouring in from international agencies to set up 'women's projects', rather than actually seeking to improve the welfare of the women in a sustainable way.
One of these projects that was very influential was called sandug, which is an association of rotating credit groups. Sandugs are composed of small groups of women, who trust each other and are thus accountable for each other's credit-worthiness. This was an early form of micro-credit for women who needed money for an unexpected expense or for business purposes. The sandugs in Sudan differ in the number of members, the amount of the contribution, the form of the contribution, and the duration of the loans.
Since 1983, the Sudanese Women's Union has been instrumental in setting up the Housewives' Organization. Among other goals, this organization has tried to facilitate access to rare consumer goods at reasonable prices.
Gender-related legislation
, the legal system of Sudan is pluralistic: Sharia, civil, and customary law have coexisted for nearly a century.As of 2013, Sudan was one of only six countries in the world that had not signed the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women. CEDAW is an international convention adopted in 1979 by the United Nations General Assembly. This international bill of rights for women sets basic standards that must be implemented to promote gender equality. Sudan's stance at the time indicated the lack of importance of gender equality.
In November 2019, Abdalla Hamdok's transitional government repealed all laws restricting women's freedom of dress, movement, association, work and study. On 22 April 2020, the Sovereignty Council of Sudan issued an amendment to its criminal legislation, which declares that anyone who performs Female Genital Mutilation either in a medical establishment or elsewhere will be punished by three years' imprisonment and a fine.
Education
The difference in education between boys and girls is one of the most obvious and critical inequalities in Sudan. Girls in general just learn how to read and write and some simple arithmetic and exit school when they reach puberty, which coincides with six years of primary school. The Gender Parity Index in primary education in Sudan as of 2006 was 0.8. This index is used to measure the relative access to education of males and females. The gender parity index is calculated first by determining the population of official school age for each level of education. Then, the Gross Enrollment Ratio would be calculated and the number of students enrolled in each level is divided by the population of official school age children. The result is multiplied by one hundred. This is all separate for girls and boys. "The Gender parity index is then calculated by dividing the female Gross Enrollment Ratio by the male Gross Enrollment Ratio for the given level of education." A lot of educational and classification information is needed for this calculation, thus as of 2012 there are eight United Nations countries that do not collect the necessary data to compute the gender parity index.The female population with at least a secondary education in 2010 was 12.8% for females compared with 18.2% for males. Although both of these are very low, males have a statistically more significant opportunity to obtain a secondary education.
The first class of students to complete studies at the university dates from 1930. In 2017, women are the majority in universities. Although the desire to educate oneself is a primary motivation, the need for additional income in an economic context where the income of the head of the family is no longer sufficient pushes women to go to university in order to find a job afterwards. One example is for the discipline of archaeology, as Ghalia Garelnabi has commented to The Guardian, gender diversity in archaeology in Sudan has increased in her lifetime: during her studies there were three women on the course, but in 2022 there were 20.