Triad (organised crime)
A triad is a Chinese transnational organised crime syndicate based in Greater China with outposts in various countries having significant overseas Chinese populations.
The triads originated from secret societies formed in the 18th and 19th centuries, some influenced by white lotus societies of the 14th century, with the intent of overthrowing the minority Manchu-ruling Qing dynasty. In the 20th century, triads were enlisted by the Kuomintang during the Republican era to attack political enemies, including through assassinations. Following the founding of the People's Republic of China and subsequent crackdowns, triads and their operations flourished in Macau, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and overseas Chinese communities. Since the reform and opening up period, triads and other triad-like "black societies" re-emerged in mainland China. In modern times, triads overseas have been reported to have connections to the government of the People's Republic of China.
Etymology
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, "triad" is a translation of the Chinese term San He Hui, referring to the union of heaven, earth, and humanity. Another theory posits that the word "triad" was coined by British officials in colonial Hong Kong as a reference to the triads' use of triangular imagery. This theory however is highly improbable as the term "Triad" had been used by William Milne to describe secret societies in Southern China as early as 1826, well before the colony was even formed. It has been speculated that triad organisations took after, or were originally part of, militant movements such as the White Lotus, the Taiping and Boxer Rebellions, and the Heaven and Earth Society.The generic use of the word "triads" for all Chinese criminal organisations is imprecise; triad groups are geographically, ethnically, culturally, and structurally unique. "Triads" are traditional organised-crime groups originating from Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. Criminal organisations operating in, or originating from, mainland China are "mainland Chinese criminal groups" or "black societies".
History
Origins
The Triad, a China-based criminal organisation, secret association, or club, was a branch of the secret Hung Society, a secret society formed with the intent of overthrowing the then-ruling Qing dynasty. Triads therefore first began as part of an organised patriotic movement to overthrow ethnic Manchu Qing rule, which was considered tyrannical and foreign to the Han ethnic majority. At the turn of the 19th century, Chinese triads were involved in revolutionary and underground activities designed to subvert the ailing Qing, which was considered corrupt and incapable of reform.Secret societies in the Qing Dynasty era were synonymous with patriotism, with groups operating under the banner of: "Oppose the Qing and Restore the Ming dynasty". Triads were also enlisted by the Kuomintang during the Republican era in order to assassinate political opponents and attack political enemies. Notable organisations included the Green Gang, another Hung Society splinter which participated in the Shanghai massacre of Chinese Communist Party members in 1927.
After the proclamation of the People's Republic of China in 1949, secret societies in mainland China were suppressed in campaigns ordered by Mao Zedong. Deng Xiaoping also suppressed the secret societies in his "Strike Hard" campaigns against organised crime in 1978. As a result, most traditional Chinese secret societies, including the triads and some of the remaining Green Gang, relocated to Hong Kong, Taiwan, Southeast Asia, and overseas countries, where they competed with the Tong and other ethnic Chinese criminal organisations. Gradually, Chinese secret societies turned to the illegal drug trade and extortion for income. In mainland China, there are of two major types of "mainland Chinese criminal organizations": loosely-organised "dark forces" and more mature "black societies". Two features which distinguish a black society from ordinary "dark forces" or low-level criminal gangs are the extent to which the organisation is able to control local markets and the degree of police protection it is able to obtain.
18th century
The Tiandihui, the Heaven and Earth Society, also called Hongmen, is a Chinese fraternal organisation and historically a secretive folk religious sect in the vein of the Ming loyalist White Lotus Sect, the Tiandihui's ancestral organisation. As the Tiandihui spread through different counties and provinces, it branched off into many groups and became known by many names, including the Sanhehui. The Hongmen grouping is today more or less synonymous with the whole Tiandihui concept, although the title "Hongmen" is also claimed by some criminal groups. Branches of the Hongmen were also formed by Chinese communities overseas, some of which became known as Chinese Freemasons. Its current iteration is purely secular.19th century
Such societies were seen as legitimate ways of helping immigrants from China settle into their new place of residence through employment and development of local connections. Triads had been banned by the Colonial government in Hong Kong in 1845, and it is also argued that triads had monopolised the labour market from 1857. Secret societies were banned by the British colonial government in Singapore during the 1890s and were slowly reduced in number by successive colonial governors and leaders. Rackets which facilitated the economic power of Singapore triads, the opium trade, and prostitution were also banned. Immigrants were encouraged to seek help from a local kongsi instead of turning to secret societies, which contributed to the societies' decline. During the Taiping Rebellion, many voluntarily or were forced to aid the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom in opposition to the Qing dynasty. At the end of the 19th century, at least one-third of Hong Kong Chinese were estimated to be part of the triads.20th century
Chu Yiu-kong argues that modern triad societies were not originally formed in Hong Kong but instead had their origins in mainland China due to an influx of Chinese refugees. They eventually made use of the triad network to help in opium trafficking as well as non-illicit trade such as labour issues and participation in the republican movement. The triad society worked as a mutual assistance group that assisted in migratory labour.According to the University of Hong Kong, most triad societies were established between 1914 and 1939 and there were once more than 300 in the territory. Arguably the most prominent triad leader of the 1930s being Du Yuesheng. After World War II, the secret societies saw a resurgence as gangsters took advantage of the uncertainty to re-establish themselves. Some Chinese communities, such as "new villages" in Kuala Lumpur and Bukit Ho Swee in Singapore, became notorious for gang violence. After 1949, in mainland China, law enforcement became stricter and a government crackdown on criminal organisations forced the triads to migrate to British Hong Kong. An estimated 300,000 triad members lived in Hong Kong during the 1950s. The number of groups has consolidated to about 50, of which 14 are under police surveillance. There were four main groups of triads—the Chiu Chow Group, 14K, the Wo Group, and the Sze Tai, the Big Four in Chinese—operating in Hong Kong. They divided land by ethnic group and geographic locations, with each triad in charge of a region. Each had their own headquarters, sub-societies, and public image.
During the 1960s and 1970s, several notable triad leaders were active such Ng Sik-ho and Ma Sik-chun in Hong Kong and Stephen Tse in Boston. In the early 1980s, the Chinese Communist Party Deputy Committee Secretary of Xinhua News Agency, Wong Man-fong, negotiated with Hong Kong-based triads on behalf of the government of People's Republic of China to ensure their peace after the handover of Hong Kong. While triad activity increased in mainland China in the 1980s as a result of economic and political changes, increased corruption, rapid urbanisation, and increased demands for illicit goods and services. The 1980s and 1990s saw the downfall of several prominent triad leaders, with arms smuggler Cheung Tze-keung, triad leader Wan Kuok-koi and Peter Chong all ending up behind bars, while entertainment industry figures such as Taiwanese director Jimmy Wang Yu and Hong Kong film producer Charles Heung were suspected of having ties to organised crime.
21st century
In the 2000s, reporters noted that the Sun Yee On appeared to send teams from China to São Paulo as enforcers, where they carry out intimidation, assault, and sometimes murder, to anyone who fails to pay protection money. While in Japan, a senior official in 2003 at the National Police Agency in Tokyo mentioned clashes between the yakuza and Chinese gangs were increasing.On 18 January 2018, Italian police arrested 33 people connected to a Chinese triad operating in Europe as part of its Operation China Truck. The triad were active in Tuscany, Veneto, Rome, and Milan in Italy, and in France, Spain, and the German city of Neuss. The indictment accused the Chinese triad of extortion, usury, illegal gambling, prostitution, and drug trafficking. The group was said to have infiltrated the transport sector, using intimidation and violence against Chinese companies wishing to transport goods by road into Europe. Police seized several vehicles, businesses, properties, and bank accounts.
According to the expert in terrorist organisations and mafia-type organised crime, Antonio De Bonis, there is a close relationship between the Triads and the Camorra, and the port of Naples is the most important landing point of the trades managed by the Chinese in cooperation with the Camorra. Among the illegal activities in which the two criminal organisations work together are human trafficking and illegal immigration aimed at the sexual and labour exploitation of Chinese immigrants into Italy, as well as synthetic drug trafficking and the laundering of illicit money through the purchase of real estate. In 2017, investigators discovered an illicit industrial waste transportation scheme jointly run by the Camorra and Triads. The waste was transported from Italy to China, leaving from Prato in Italy and arriving in Hong Kong- a scheme which, prior to its discovery, had been netting millions of dollars' worth of revenue for both organisations.
In April 2025, Zhang Dayong, known as Asheng, was executed in Rome with a gunshot to the head and three to the chest. He was the right-hand man of Zhang Naizhong, the alleged head of the Chinese mafia in Europe, and served as his representative in Rome. Zhang Dayong had a history of violent offenses and was considered a key player in the organisation's illegal activities in Italy, including loan sharking and running underground gambling operations. Although he officially ran a store in Rome's Esquilino neighbourhood, Asheng was in charge of the Chinese mafia's operations in the Italian capital. Investigators link him to past violence, including the enforcement of payments through beatings. He was also present at the lavish 2013 wedding of Zhang Naizhong's son, attended by major figures in the Chinese criminal underworld. Asheng reportedly lost favour within the organisation after several missteps, including getting drunk and assaulting women at a brothel managed by a fellow gang member. Intercepted conversations reveal how his disrespect toward superiors and erratic behaviour eventually sealed his fate. His murder is believed to be connected to the ongoing turf war among Chinese gangs, known as the “hanger war” of Prato, which has now spread to Rome. His death marks a significant escalation in the mafia conflict. In August 2025, Italian authorities arrested 13 individuals with connections to Chinese organised crime.