Paleogene
The Paleogene Period is a geologic period and system that spans 43 million years from the end of the Cretaceous Period Ma to the beginning of the Neogene Period Ma. It is the first period of the Cenozoic Era, the tenth period of the Phanerozoic and is divided into the Paleocene, Eocene, and Oligocene epochs. The earlier term Tertiary Period was used to define the time now covered by the Paleogene Period and subsequent Neogene Period; despite no longer being recognized as a formal stratigraphic term, "Tertiary" still sometimes remains in informal use. Paleogene is often abbreviated "Pg", although the United States Geological Survey uses the abbreviation "" for the Paleogene on the Survey's geologic maps.
Much of the world's modern vertebrate diversity originated in a rapid surge of diversification in the early Paleogene, as survivors of the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event took advantage of empty ecological niches left behind by the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs, pterosaurs, marine reptiles, and primitive fish groups. Mammals continued to diversify from relatively small, simple forms into a highly diverse group ranging from small-bodied forms to very large ones, radiating into multiple orders and colonizing the air and marine ecosystems by the Eocene. Birds, the only surviving group of dinosaurs, quickly diversified from the very few neognath and paleognath clades that survived the extinction event, also radiating into multiple orders, colonizing different ecosystems and achieving an extreme level of morphological diversity. Percomorph fish, the most diverse group of vertebrates today, first appeared near the end of the Cretaceous but saw a very rapid radiation into their modern order and family-level diversity during the Paleogene, achieving a diverse array of morphologies.
The Paleogene is marked by considerable changes in climate from the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum, through global cooling during the Eocene to the first appearance of permanent ice sheets in the Antarctic at the beginning of the Oligocene.
Geology
Stratigraphy
The Paleogene is divided into three series/epochs: the Paleocene, Eocene, and Oligocene. These stratigraphic units can be defined globally or regionally. For global stratigraphic correlation, the International Commission on Stratigraphy ratify global stages based on a Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point from a single formation identifying the lower boundary of the stage.Paleocene
The Paleocene is the first series/epoch of the Paleogene and lasted from 66.0 Ma to 56.0 Ma. It is divided into three stages: the Danian 66.0 - 61.6 Ma; Selandian 61.6 - 59.2 Ma; and, Thanetian 59.2 - 56.0 Ma. The GSSP for the base of the Cenozoic, Paleogene and Paleocene is at Oued Djerfane, west of El Kef, Tunisia. It is marked by an iridium anomaly produced by an asteroid impact, and is associated with the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. The boundary is defined as the rusty colored base of a 50 cm thick clay, which would have been deposited over only a few days. Similar layers are seen in marine and continental deposits worldwide. These layers include the iridium anomaly, microtektites, nickel-rich spinel crystals and shocked quartz, all indicators of a major extraterrestrial impact. The remains of the crater are found at Chicxulub on the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico. The extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs, ammonites and dramatic changes in marine plankton and many other groups of organisms, are also used for correlation purposes.Eocene
The Eocene is the second series/epoch of the Paleogene, and lasted from 56.0 Ma to 33.9 Ma. It is divided into four stages: the Ypresian 56.0 Ma to 47.8 Ma; Lutetian 47.8 Ma to 41.2 Ma; Bartonian 41.2 Ma to 37.71 Ma; and, Priabonian 37.71 Ma to 33.9 Ma. The GSSP for the base of the Eocene is at Dababiya, near Luxor, Egypt and is marked by the start of a significant variation in global carbon isotope ratios, produced by a major period of global warming. The change in climate was due to a rapid release of frozen methane clathrates from seafloor sediments at the beginning of the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum.Oligocene
The Oligocene is the third and youngest series/epoch of the Paleogene, and lasted from 33.9 Ma to 23.03 Ma. It is divided into two stages: the Rupelian 33.9 Ma to 27.82 Ma; and, Chattian 27.82 - 23.03 Ma. The GSSP for the base of the Oligocene is at Massignano, near Ancona, Italy. The extinction of the hantkeninid planktonic foraminifera is the key marker for the Eocene-Oligocene boundary, which was a time of climate cooling that led to widespread changes in fauna and flora.Palaeogeography
The final stages of the breakup of Pangaea occurred during the Paleogene as Atlantic Ocean rifting and seafloor spreading extended northwards, separating the North America and Eurasian plates, and Australia and South America rifted from Antarctica, opening the Southern Ocean. Africa and India collided with Eurasia forming the Alpine-Himalayan mountain chains and the western margin of the Pacific plate changed from a divergent to convergent plate boundary.Alpine–Himalayan orogeny
Alpine orogeny
The Alpine orogeny developed in response to the collision between the African and Eurasian plates during the closing of the Neotethys Ocean and the opening of the Central Atlantic Ocean. The result was a series of arcuate mountain ranges, from the Tell-Rif-Betic cordillera in the western Mediterranean through the Alps, Carpathians, Apennines, Dinarides and Hellenides to the Taurides in the east.From the Late Cretaceous into the early Paleocene, Africa began to converge with Eurasia. The irregular outlines of the continental margins, including the Adriatic promontory that extended north from the African plate, led to the development of several short subduction zones, rather than one long system. In the western Mediterranean, the European plate was subducted southwards beneath the African plate, whilst in the eastern Mediterranean, Africa was subducted beneath Eurasia along a northward dipping subduction zone. Convergence between the Iberian and European plates led to the Pyrenean orogeny and, as Adria pushed northwards the Alps and Carpathian orogens began to develop.
The collision of Adria with Eurasia in the early Palaeocene was followed by a c.10 million year pause in the convergence of Africa and Eurasia, connected with the onset of the opening of the North Atlantic Ocean as Greenland rifted from the Eurasian plate in the Palaeocene. Convergence rates between Africa and Eurasia increased again in the early Eocene and the remaining oceanic basins between Adria and Europe closed.
Between about 40 and 30 Ma, subduction began along the western Mediterranean arc of the Tell, Rif, Betic and Apennine mountain chains. The rate of convergence was less than the subduction rate of the dense lithosphere of the western Mediterranean and roll-back of the subducting slab led to the arcuate structure of these mountain ranges.
In the eastern Mediterranean, c. 35 Ma, the Anatolide-Tauride platform began to enter the trench leading to the development of the Dinarides, Hellenides and Tauride mountain chains as the passive margin sediments of Adria were scrapped off onto the Eurasia crust during subduction.
Zagros Mountains
The Zagros mountain belt stretches for c. 2000 km from the eastern border of Iraq to the Makran coast in southern Iran. It formed as a result of the convergence and collision of the Arabian and Eurasian plates as the Neotethys Ocean closed and is composed sediments scraped from the descending Arabian Plate.From the Late Cretaceous, a volcanic arc developed on the Eurasia margin as the Neotethys crust was subducted beneath it. A separate intra-oceanic subduction zone in the Neotethys resulted in the obduction of ocean crust onto the Arabian margin in the Late Cretaceous to Paleocene, with break-off of the subducted oceanic plate close to the Arabian margin occurring during the Eocene. Continental collision began during the Eocene c. 35 Ma and continued into the Oligocene to c. 26 Ma.
Himalayan orogeny
The Indian continent rifted from Madagascar at c. 83 Ma and drifted rapidly northwards towards the southern margin of Eurasia. A rapid decrease in velocity to c. 5 cm/yr in the early Eocene records the collision of the Tethyan Himalayas, the leading edge of Greater India, with the Lhasa terrane of Tibet, along the Indus-Yarling-Zangbo suture zone. To the south of this zone, the Himalaya are composed of metasedimentary rocks scraped off the now subducted Indian continental crust and mantle lithosphere as the collision progressed.Palaeomagnetic data place the present day Indian continent further south at the time of collision and decrease in plate velocity, indicating the presence of a large region to the north of India that has now been subducted beneath the Eurasian plate or incorporated into the mountain belt. This region, known as Greater India, formed by extension along the northern margin of India during the opening of the Neotethys. The Tethyan Himalaya block lay along its northern edge, with the Neotethys Ocean lying between it and southern Eurasia.
Debate about the amount of deformation seen in the geological record in the India–Eurasia collision zone versus the size of Greater India, the timing and nature of the collision relative to the decrease in plate velocity, and explanations for the unusually high velocity of the Indian plate have led to several models for Greater India: 1) A Late Cretaceous to early Paleocene subduction zone may have lain between India and Eurasia in the Neotethys, dividing the region into two plates, subduction was followed by collision of India with Eurasia in the middle Eocene. In this model Greater India would have been less than 900 km wide; 2) Greater India may have formed a single plate, several thousand kilometres wide, with the Tethyan Himalaya microcontinent separated from the Indian continent by an oceanic basin. The microcontinent collided with southern Eurasia c. 58 Ma This model assigns older dates to parts of Greater India, which changes its paleogeographic position relative to Eurasia and creates a Greater India formed of extended continental crust 2000–3000 km wide.