HR 8799
HR 8799 is a roughly 42 million-year-old main-sequence star located away from Earth in the constellation of Pegasus. It has roughly 1.4 times the Sun's mass and 5 times its luminosity. It is part of a system that also contains a debris disk and at least four massive planets. These planets were the first exoplanets whose orbital motion was confirmed by direct imaging. The star is a Gamma Doradus variable: its luminosity changes because of non-radial pulsations of its surface. The star is also classified as a Lambda Boötis star, which means its surface layers are depleted in iron peak elements. It is the only known star which is simultaneously a Gamma Doradus variable, a Lambda Boötis type, and a Vega-like star.
Location
HR 8799 is a star that is visible to the naked eye with sufficiently dark skies. It has a magnitude of about 6.0, varying by a few hundredths of a magnitude, and it is located inside the western edge of the great square of Pegasus almost exactly halfway between Beta and Alpha Pegasi.The star's name of HR 8799 is its number in the Bright Star Catalogue. It also has the variable star designation V342 Pegasi.
Stellar properties
The star HR 8799 is a member of the Lambda Boötis class, a group of peculiar stars with an unusual lack of "metals" in their upper atmosphere. Because of this special status, stars like HR 8799 have a very complex spectral type. The luminosity profile of the Balmer lines in the star's spectrum, as well as the star's effective temperature, best match the typical properties of an F0 V star. However, the strength of the calcium II K absorption line and the other metallic lines are more like those of an A5 V star. The star's spectral type is therefore written as, or more commonly with the hydrogen-based type first and usually omitting the 'h': F0VkA5mA5 λ Boo.Age determination of this star shows significant variation depending on the method used. Statistically, for stars hosting a debris disk, the luminosity of this star suggests an age of about 20–150 million years. Comparison with stars having similar motion through space gives an age in the range 30–160 million years. Given the star's position on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram of luminosity versus temperature, it has an estimated age in the range of 30–1,128 million years. λ Boötis stars like this are generally young, with a mean age of a billion years. More accurately, asteroseismology suggests an age of billion years, although this is highly sensitive to the rotation angle of the star: a value of 36° instead of the assumed 50° would allow for lower ages between 26 and 430 million years. Older ages are disfavored because they would imply higher masses for the planets to fit into the cooling models, and the system would not have stable orbits due to the stronger gravitational perturbations. The best accepted value for an age of HR 8799 is 30 million years, consistent with being a member of the Columba association co-moving group of stars.
Earlier analysis of the star's spectrum reveals that it has a slight overabundance of carbon and oxygen compared to the Sun. While some Lambda Boötis stars have sulfur abundances similar to that of the Sun, this is not the case for HR 8799; the sulfur abundance is only around 35% of the solar level. The star is also poor in elements heavier than sodium: for example, the iron abundance is only 28% of the solar iron abundance. Asteroseismic observations of other pulsating Lambda Boötis stars suggest that the peculiar abundance patterns of these stars are confined to the surface only: the bulk composition is likely more normal. This may indicate that the observed element abundances are the result of the accretion of metal-poor gas from the environment around the star.
In 2020, spectral analysis using multiple data sources have detected an inconsistency in prior data and concluded the star carbon and oxygen abundances are the same or slightly higher than solar. The iron abundance was updated to 30% of the solar value.
A 2011 asteroseismic analysis using spectroscopic data suggested that the rotational inclination of the star is greater than or approximately equal to 40°. However, such measurements are difficult due to the complex nature of the pulsations. If this value is accurate, it would contrast with the planets' orbital inclinations, which are in roughly the same plane at an angle of about. Hence, there may be an unexplained misalignment between the rotation of the star and the orbits of its planets. A more recent photometric analysis suggests a rotational inclination of °, which is more consistent with that of the planets. Observation of this star with the Chandra X-ray Observatory indicates that it has a weak level of magnetic activity, but the X-ray activity is much higher than that of an A‑type star like Altair. This suggests that the internal structure of the star more closely resembles that of an F0 star. The temperature of the stellar corona is about 3.0 million K.
Planetary system
On 13 November 2008, Christian Marois of the National Research Council of Canada's Herzberg Institute of Astrophysics and his team announced they had directly observed three planets orbiting the star with the Keck and Gemini telescopes in Hawaii, in both cases employing adaptive optics to make observations in the infrared. A precovery observation of the outer 3 planets was later found in infrared images obtained in 1998 by the Hubble Space Telescope's NICMOS instrument, after a newly developed image-processing technique was applied. Further observations in 2009–2010 revealed the fourth giant planet orbiting inside the first three planets at a projected separation just less than, which has been confirmed by multiple studies.HR 8799 b orbits inside a dusty disk like the Solar Kuiper belt. It is one of the most massive disks known around any star within 300 light years of Earth, and there is room in the inner system for terrestrial planets. There is an additional debris disk just inside the orbit of the innermost planet.
The orbital radii of planets e, d, c, and b are 2–3 times those of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune's orbits, respectively. Because of the inverse square law relating radiation intensity to distance from the source, comparable radiation intensities are present at distances farther from HR 8799 than from the Sun, it serendipitously turns out that corresponding planets in the solar and HR 8799 systems receive similar amounts of stellar radiation.
HR 8799 system is the first multiple-planet extrasolar system to be directly imaged. The orbital motion of the planets is in an anticlockwise direction and was confirmed via multiple observations dating back to 1998. The system is more likely to be stable if the planets e, d, and c are in a 4:2:1 resonance, which would imply that the orbit of the planet d has an eccentricity exceeding 0.04 in order to match the observational constraints. Planetary systems with the best-fit masses from evolutionary models would be stable if the outer three planets are in a 1:2:4 orbital resonance. According to dynamical simulations, the HR 8799 planetary system may be in an 1:2:4:8 resonance.
The broadband photometry of planets b, c and d has shown that there may be significant clouds in their atmospheres, while the infrared spectroscopy of planets b and c points to non-equilibrium / chemistry. Near-infrared observations with the Project 1640 integral field spectrograph on the Palomar Observatory have shown that compositions between the four planets vary significantly. This is a surprise since the planets presumably formed in the same way from the same disk and have similar luminosities.
An additional planet candidate was found in cycle 1 with NIRCam, 5 arcseconds south of HR 8799. Follow-up observations with NIRCam are planned to confirm or reject this candidate.
Planet spectra
A number of studies have used the spectra of HR 8799's planets to determine their chemical compositions and constrain their formation scenarios. The first spectroscopic study of planet b detected strong water absorption and hints of methane absorption. Subsequently, weak methane and carbon monoxide absorption in this planet's atmosphere was also detected, indicating efficient vertical mixing of the atmosphere and a disequilibrium / ratio at the photosphere. Compared to models of planetary atmospheres, this first spectrum of planet b is best matched by a model of enhanced metallicity, which may support the notion that this planet formed through core-accretion.The first simultaneous spectra of all four known planets in the HR 8799 system were obtained in 2012 using the Project 1640 instrument at Palomar Observatory. The near-infrared spectra from this instrument confirmed the red colors of all four planets and are best matched by models of planetary atmospheres that include clouds. Though these spectra do not directly correspond to any known astrophysical objects, some of the planet spectra demonstrate similarities with L- and T-type brown dwarfs and the night-side spectrum of Saturn. The implications of the simultaneous spectra of all four planets obtained with Project 1640 are summarized as follows: Planet b contains ammonia and/or acetylene as well as carbon dioxide, but has little methane; planet c contains ammonia, perhaps some acetylene but neither carbon dioxide nor substantial methane; planet d contains acetylene, methane, and carbon dioxide but ammonia is not definitively detected; planet e contains methane and acetylene but no ammonia or carbon dioxide. The spectrum of planet e is similar to a reddened spectrum of Saturn.
Moderate-resolution near-infrared spectroscopy, obtained with the Keck telescope, definitively detected carbon monoxide and water absorption lines in the atmosphere of planet c. The carbon-to-oxygen ratio, which is thought to be a good indicator of the formation history for giant planets, for planet c was measured to be slightly greater than that of the host star HR 8799. The enhanced carbon-to-oxygen ratio and depleted levels of carbon and oxygen in planet c favor a history in which the planet formed through core accretion. However, it is important to note that conclusions about the formation history of a planet based solely on its composition may be inaccurate if the planet has undergone significant migration, chemical evolution, or core dredging. Later, in November 2018, researchers confirmed the existence of water and the absence of methane in the atmosphere of using high-resolution spectroscopy and near-infrared adaptive optics at the Keck Observatory.
The red colors of the planets may be explained by the presence of iron and silicate atmospheric clouds, while their low surface gravities might explain the strong disequilibrium concentrations of carbon monoxide and the lack of strong methane absorption.