Edmund Ironside
Edmund Ironside was King of the English from 23 April to 30 November 1016. Edmund's reign was spent fighting with Norse invaders under Cnut.
Edmund was born sometime between 990 and 993 to King Æthelred the Unready. Little is known about Edmund's life before 1015; the first concrete evidence of his agency was from the late 1000s and he seems to have been close with his brother Æthelstan. Although Edmund possibly fought alongside his father in the campaigns of 1009 to 1011 and the campaign of 1013, when the royal family was forced to flee to Normandy due to Sweyn Forkbeard's invasion that year, Edmund stayed in England with Æthelstan. Æthelstan died in June 1014 and in his will Edmund was the main beneficiary, receiving the sword of Offa and estates in the Danelaw. Edmund inherited Æthelstan's connections in the Five Boroughs, and when his close allies Sigeferth and Morcar were executed with the permission of King Æthelred, he revolted, illegally marrying Sigeferth's widow and occupying the Five Boroughs, even issuing charters.
Edmund's revolt was suddenly ended by the invasion of Sweyn's son Cnut in the summer of 1015. To contest Cnut's occupation in Wessex, he attempted to raise armies alongside Eadric Streona and his father, but they all collapsed due to mistrust. A third force raised with Uhtred of Bamburgh unravelled as Uhtred submitted to Cnut when the latter threatened Bamburgh. Æthelred died on 23 April 1016 and Edmund soon claimed the throne. He fought in four battles with Cnut at Penselwood, Sherston, Brentford, and possibly Otford, and received military success. By the time he faced Cnut at the Battle of Assandun, he was backed by the "whole English nation" but Eadric Streona, the Ealdorman of Mercia fled, causing a decisive English defeat. After a possible sixth battle, Edmund was forced to partition the kingdom at Alney, with Cnut receiving everything except for Wessex, held by Edmund.
Edmund died soon after on 30 November under suspicious circumstances, and there is historical debate as to whether foul play was involved. Afterwards, Cnut received the whole of England and exiled or executed Edmund's family and supporters. The Danish line founded by Cnut would end in 1042 and the House of Wessex restored temporarily under Edmund's much younger half-brother, Edward the Confessor. Edgar the Ætheling, Edmund's grandson, was a claimant to the English throne for some time. Edmund's reputation was praised in medieval sources, and he is generally seen as a brave and capable king who fought Cnut to a standstill, forcing compromise.
Background
Beginning in the 9th century, Scandinavian raids on English soil had steadily escalated, and they conquered much of England. This came during a period of state formation in Scandinavia, with Norway, Sweden, and Denmark consolidating into kingdoms at about the same time as England was in the 10th century. Although many foreign writers referred to kings of Denmark, there were in fact many petty kings and princes. The largely English writers of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and other sources, writing for an English audience, oversimplified the nature of the raiders and focused on their plundering effects within England.The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were poorly built to withstand Viking attack, but Alfred the Great reformed the West Saxon military system and declared himself King of the Anglo-Saxons, and his descendants would unite England. By Edward the Elder's death in 924, the remaining Danish polities south of the Humber were in English hands. His son Æthelstan was finally coronated as King of England in 927, and by the early 10th-century, the kings Edward the Elder, Æthelstan, and Edmund I of England were increasingly forcing out the last vestiges of independent Viking rule from England. Famously, Æthelstan and his brother Edmund, who succeeded him as king, fought at the bloody Battle of Brunanburh, an English victory. Edmund and his brother Eadred, who succeeded him as king because Edmund's own sons were too young, both lost and had to reconquer the north during their reigns.
In 959, Edmund's second son Edgar, known as "the Peaceable," was crowned as King of England, after the difficult reign of his elder brother Eadwig. Edgar was able to claim suzerainty over Scotland, and it was during his reign that Viking raids on England significantly lessened. Edgar would die in 975, which caused a succession dispute between the faction of his elder son, Edward, and his younger son, Æthelred, in which Edward was successful. Edward was murdered in March 978 and was succeeded by Æthelred. Towards the later Anglo-Saxon period, particularly the reign of Edmund's father, Æthelred, the Viking armies that invaded England expanded drastically in both professionalism and size. Further, despite their efforts, the kings of all England could hardly rely on the support of their subjects within the former Danelaw. Æthelred's own character does not seem to have been capable of addressing the issue. He is frequently compared to Alfred the Great in their contrasting success in dealing with invasion, although Keynes attempted to contextualise their differences. Frank Stenton attributed "spasmodic violence," to Æthelred but this is also contested more recently. Jeffrey James, for example, attributed to Æthelred an "energetic, forthright, and at times arrogant personality. In the 1000s, due to his intense difficulties against the Danes, Æthelred would begin a programme of rearmament among the English warrior class.
Primary sources from the 11th century are generally not reserved in supporting Edmund Ironside and promoting his reputation. Howard views the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle as a largely factual, but politically crafted pro-Edmund history. The Encomium Emmae Reginae was written as a tool, sponsored by Emma of Normandy to retain her influence. The Encomiast manipulates political events and facts more than the chronicler, only even affording Edmund the title of king after Cnut recognized him in Wessex at Alney, but it still depicted him as brave and capable. The Knútsdrapa is one of the most militantly pro-Cnut primary sources on the period. It omits the Battle of Sherston and falsely claims that Cnut was victorious at Brentford. The continental Thietmar of Merseburg's contemporary history was confused and spasmodic when speaking of England.
Early life
The exact date of Edmund's birth is unclear, but it could have been no later than 993 when he was a signatory to charters along with his two elder brothers. Historian David McDermott suggests a birth year of 991. He was named after his great-grandfather, Edmund I. He was the third of the six sons of King Æthelred and his first wife, possibly called Ælfgifu, who was probably the daughter of Earl Thored of Northumbria. His elder brothers were Æthelstan and Egbert. His younger brothers were Eadred, Eadwig and Edgar. He had four sisters, Eadgyth, Ælfgifu, Wulfhilda, and the Abbess of Wherwell Abbey. There is significant evidence that he was born in Wessex, possibly at Æthelingadene, and raised by his grandmother, Ælfthryth. This gave him ties with the sons of Ordgar, who were powerful in the West Country. Ordwulf, Ordgar's son was called "first among the men of Devon." Given his later career, Edmund was probably taught in the use of arms, religion, and virtues, though this is speculation. He was possibly taught at Wherwell Abbey, and likely in his mother's company.Edmund's birth was preceded by disorder in England, caused by a famine in 986, and escalating raids in the 980s that culminated in the decisive English defeat at the Battle of Maldon and tribute payment to Vikings. Beyond the tribute of 10,000 pounds, the battle also saw the death of Ealdorman Byrhtnoth of Essex. The concept of tribute was not unique to Anglo-Saxon England, and had been practiced in 9th-century Francia as well. As a result, Æthelred's attitude changed significantly. In 993, at Pentecost, he summoned a council at Winchester admitting to wrongdoing and setting out to correct his supposed errors. Æthelred promoted the cult of Edward the Martyr, and reconciled with the reform movement in England.
From 997, there had been constant raids in England, with only a pause in 1000. These raids, led by Sweyn Forkbeard of Denmark made their way to Edmund's place of upbringing at Æthelingadene in 1001, and the battle that took place between the English and Danish forces over the site saw heavy Danish casualties, possibly rivaling Maldon in size. In 1002, Æthelred ordered the St Brice's Day Massacre. The Danes were seen as a moral threat, and furthermore Æthelred may have doubted their loyalty, although they were unlikely to form a fifth column. Scandinavian raids continued led by Sweyn Forkbeard of Denmark from 1003 to 1004, and again in 1006, forcing the English into another tribute payment in 1007. A large coalition led by the powerful Thorkell the Tall ravaged Southern England from 1009 to 1011, and found Æthelred's military response largely ineffective. After his men sacked Canterbury and killed Archbishop Ælfheah, Thorkell defected to Æthelred as a mercenary. Though unrecorded, Edmund may have gained some early military experience fighting in the campaigns of 1009–1011, and later in 1013.
From 1005, Eadric Streona began to monopolise control at the king's court, forcing out many of Æthelred's former courtiers. In 1007, he even became the Ealdorman of Mercia. It is not known why he grew to such power, but James suggests that Æthelred's need for proven warriors precipitated his rise, and Eadric's deep raids into Wales showed his ability. Another noble who fit this criteria was Uhtred of Bamburgh, who had a few years prior inflicted a decisive defeat on King Malcolm of Scotland. Both Eadric and Uhtred would marry daughters of Æthelred.
Second ætheling
Edmund's mother died around 1000, or alternatively may have been repudiated. Afterwards his father remarried, this time to Emma of Normandy, who had two sons, Edward the Confessor and Alfred and a daughter Goda. The marriage benefited Æthelred, making peace with duke Richard of Normandy, Emma's brother. Æthelstan and Edmund seem to have been personally close and political allies, and they probably felt threatened by Emma's ambitions for her sons. Edward the Confessor was born to Emma around 1005–1005, Godgifu 1007–1008, and Alfred 1011–1012.The records of Edmund himself before 1015 are minimal, but it is known that sometime between 1007 and 1011 he was involved in the forced purchase of some land at Holcombe Rogus. Edmund's lease to Holcombe Rogus was witnessed by Bishop Lyfing of Wells, Bishop Æthelric of Sherborne, Bishop Æthelsige of Cornwall, Æthelmær the Stout, Ealdorman of the Western Provinces, Archbishop Wulfstan of York, and Eadric Streona, the latter's appearance being explained by his influence with the king.
Sweyn launched an invasion of England in 1013 alongside his son Cnut, possibly in response to Thorkell's sudden English alliance. After landing at Sandwich in August, he routed some initial resistance before heading northwards, receiving the submission of the English north of Watling Street. He then made his way south of Watling Street, at which point he allowed his men to begin looting the countryside, beginning a campaign of pillage. Sweyn first attacked London, but lacking success he secured the rest of Wessex, receiving Ealdorman Æthelmær's submission. Isolated, London surrendered, forcing Æthelred to flee for Normandy with his family, except for his two eldest living sons, Edmund and Æthelstan.
It seems that those two had chosen to stay in England rather than fleeing with their father. Sweyn died in February 1014, and much of the Danelaw, as well as Sweyn's fleet, accepted his son Cnut as king, despite the fact that he had not been crowned, and probably not accepted by the Witan. However, Æthelred returned to England and launched a surprise attack in the Spring. Cnut, who was at Lindsey, was quickly defeated and fled to Denmark.
Æthelstan died in June 1014 with Edmund at his bedside. In his will, he left Edmund a sword which had belonged to king Offa of Mercia. Edmund was the main beneficiary in his brother's will; he received two other swords, a silver trumpet, land in East Anglia and Derbyshire, and the responsibility of fulfilling a number of bequests. Æthelstan's will also reflected the close relationship between the brothers and the nobility of the East Midlands. Edmund maintained Æthelstan's alliance with the Danelaw brothers Sigeferth and Morcar against Eadric Streona. One possible reason for their enmity was that Eadric was sympathetic to the claim of Emma's children, but there is no definite evidence. Edmund became the heir presumptive for the throne, and took his brother's place as a witness of his father's charters.